Social support is determined by individual and social factors

Social support is a consequence of the interplay between individual factors and the social environment. Therefore, factors threatening social support may be individual or social, or both.

Social support may be partly determined by genetic factors

Social support in adulthood may be to some extent genetically determined (Bergman et al., 1990). However, the strength of this assumed relationship differs between studies. Bergman and colleagues found that genetic factors were responsible for 30% of the variance in perceived support. However, genetics made little contribution to individual differences in the actual quantity of enacted support. Furthermore, another study demonstrated only a minor role of genetic factors in the association between perceived support and depression (Kessler et al., 1994b). In this study, depression was not so much reduced by genetic determinants of social support, but mainly by the stress-buffering effect of perceived support.

Personality characteristics affect social support

Personality factors that might be associated with perceived social support are ‘interpersonal trust’ (Rotter, 1967) and ‘social phobia’ (Barlow, 1988). Without trusting other people, it is less likely that the person will perceive support from others, and interact with others in such a way that social support is provided. People with social phobia have a strong feeling of anxiety connected to contact with other people. They are afraid of being the centre of attention, and they are concerned about not giving the impression of being stupid. For these reasons they try to avoid other people as much as possible.

Social position affects received social support

The position of a person within the social structure will influence the probability of them receiving social support. The position of a person is determined by such factors as:

• Marital status: People who are not married and live alone are less likely to receive social support than people who are married or cohabitate.
• Family size: People with many children are likely to receive more social support than people with few children (Broadhead et al., 1983), because they have a more extensive family network.
• Age: Elderly people tend to receive less social support than younger people (Stephens et al., 1978).
• Gender: Women tend to receive more social support than men (MacFarlene et al., 1981).
• Socio-economic status and migration: People with lower socio-economic status and non-western immigrants report less social support than other people (Dalgard et al., 2006b; Dalgard et al., 2007b). Social support seems to decrease the lower the occupational status, unskilled workers reporting the poorest social support (Marmot et al., 1991).

For more information about the socio-economic determinants of health see the section Socio-economic factors and the EUphocus Health inequalities.

Social context determines social support opportunities

The occurrence of social support depends on the social network and the opportunities for interaction with other people. These opportunities are determined by a number of contextual variables on the community level, such as (Schieflo, 1992).

• The existence and availability of social arenas i.e. places where people can meet, like shopping centres, parks, sport arenas and the like.
• Purpose of social interaction. Without a unifying purpose for contact (e.g. addressing a common problem, playing a game, celebrating an event), social interaction will be low.
• Time spent together. Without enough time, interpersonal relationships will not develop.
• Continuity of relationships. Without continuity social relationships will easily be disrupted.
• Sharing of social norms and values. If people are too different with respect to social characteristics (such as religious and cultural preferences), it is less likely that they will develop supportive relationships.

Community structure influences social support

The structure of the community determines to what extent people live in a social context that is conducive to social support. In communities characterized by social disintegration, the level of social support among people is reduced compared to integrated communities (Leighton, 1959; Dalgard, 1986). Typical for disintegrated communities is that the level of social cohesion is low, that people lack trust in each other, and that social interaction is low.